Role of Electronics in Modern Weapons

INCREDIBLE MODERN WEAPONS

By Dr. Michael E. Todd

In this article you will discover weapons that would only have been in the science fiction movies and books of past years. Yet, now on the scene are terrible, scary and frightening weapons that show that we are truly in the last days.

The material in this article is taken from web sites, books, and magazines. As a matter of fact there are so many sources that this article cannot fully do justice to this subject. However we will do our best to at least give you some idea of just how far man has come in this area of making and inventing the INCREDIBLE MODERN WEAPONS of today.

ELECTRONIC SPY FLY - SMALL MACHINE FLY that can literally fly and look like a bug, yet lets the controller know what is happening. Also there are COCKROACHES that can be used as spies. Scientists are developing a remote-controlled cockroach that can carry a tiny camera and microphone for spying missions with a microchip surgically implanted in its back and electrodes connected to its brain, scientists can make the cockroach turn left, right, crawl forward or leap backwards.

CONCRETE SUBMARINES - C-subs will fight differently. Conventional submarines prowl the seas. On a typical patrol, a C-sub will sink offshore, waiting for enemy ships to pass overhead. Then it will fire vertical-launch torpedoes. Because concrete is strong in compression, C-subs could sink well below the 1800-ft. "crush depth" for steel, according to the British Ministry of Defense (MOD). And on sonar displays, the concrete will be hard to distinguish from a sandy sea bottom.

DAISY CUTTER BOMB - The 15,000-pound BLU-82 - nicknamed "daisy-cutter" because of the shape of its tremendous impact - is believed to be the world's largest non-nuclear bomb. Filled with a slurry of ammonium nitrate and aluminum powder to ignite a blast, the bomb incinerates everything within up to 600 yards, costs about $27,000 and is about the size of a Volkswagen Beetle.

ELECTRONIC BOMB - Tested in Sweden. This devise literally melts and disables any electronic circuitry within its range. The bomb can activate and no one knows that it is there. A very devastating kind of weapon.

ELECTRO MAGNETIC RAIL GUN - travels at the speed of 6 kilometers per second) (can travel a total of 250 kilometers) 10 times farther than conventional cannons. Eventually they want to develop this to travel up to the speed of light. They also want to install this weapon in fighter planes.

MIND CONTROL - Artificial telepathy. Machines have been developed that can literally (from a distance) control a person's mind.

NEUTRON BOMB - In a suit case. The United States government has been concerned about these bombs ending up in terrorist's hands. These bombs destroy only living animals (people included).

X-RAY MACHINES - A police officer can aim the hand-held unit into a crowd up to 90 feet away. The device can even be used outside a room to scan individuals inside.

WEATHER CHANGES - HAARP - Electro magnetic weather weapons can cause Earthquakes & volcanoes. (The electronics genius, Dr. Tesla bragged about being able to use his technology to "split the earth in half" and in producing a "death beam" of unimaginable magnitude. This weapon can also cause, Snow-Hail-Tornadoes & Tidal waves. Rainfall that produces flooding. "Climate Changes that could devastate an enemy nation's agriculture" -- one of the devastating actions that a UN Treaty outlaws is damage to the "biota" of a nation. The word, "biota" refers to the "animal and plant life of a particular region considered as a total ecological entity". [Dictionary] In other words, these Weather Control capabilities can wipe out an entire ecological system?! This revelation is astounding! If the goal of the scientists wielding these weather weapons, is to totally annihilate a civilization, they can easily do so, it appears!
The June 5, 1977, New York Times described the great earthquake which destroyed Tangshan, China on July 28, 1976, and killed over 650,000 people.
"Just before the first tremor at 3:42 am, the sky lit up like daylight. The multi-hued lights, mainly white and red, were seen up to 200 miles away. Leaves on many trees were burned to a crisp and growing vegetables were scorched on one side, as if by a fireball."

SMART - Criminal justice is really going high-tech these days. A new satellite system will enable authorities to monitor and track lawbreakers continuously and constantly.

ACOUSTIC PSYCHO-CORRECTION - The Russians claimed that this device involves "the transmission of specific commands via static or white noise bands into the human subconscious without upsetting other intellectual functions." Experts said that demonstrations of this equipment have shown "encouraging" results "after exposure of less than one minute," and has produced "the ability to alter behavior on willing and unwilling subjects."

UNMANNED GLOBAL REACH - Recently an unmanned autonomous aircraft, the Global Hawk, flew 8,600 miles from Edwards Air Force base in California to Australia. This flight was not remotely controlled. It was autonomous. The aircraft taxied out, took off, flew its proper course and landed unassisted by a human operator. A few weeks later it returned the same way. Now it's operating over Afghanistan.

FIREPOWER! - One B2 bomber can presently hit 16 independent targets on a single mission. That's nothing short of amazing. Soon, due to smaller munitions, that figure will be 80. Yet even smaller, more accurate bombs will soon follow those, allowing a single B2 to carry 324 bombs. The operational fleet of 18 B2's will be able to carry 5,824 individually targeted weapons!

MICROWAVE BEAM - Tests of a controversial weapon that is designed to heat people's skin with a microwave beam have shown that it can disperse crowds. The 3-millimetre wavelength radiation penetrates only 0.3 millimetres into the skin, rapidly heating the surface above the 45 øC pain threshold. At 50 øC, they say the pain reflex makes people pull away automatically in less than a second - it's said to feel like fleetingly touching a hot light bulb. Someone would have to stay in the beam for 250 seconds before it burnt the skin, the lab says, giving "ample margin between intolerable pain and causing a burn".

ROBOTS - Coming to a military theater near you: the "robo lobster." The eight-legged underwater robot, loaded with sensors that can see and even smell, will be used to find landmines buried along potentially dangerous coasts. Also on deck is a sister system, dubbed the robo crab, an electronic crustacean that will climb up on the beach and beam back images of what soldiers would encounter when they venture onshore. On dry land, the Army is making strides with vehicles that could provide surveillance or supply troops with ammunition. Some could even put up a smoke screen and throw a net over the approaching enemy. Military planners see such vehicles, which vary in size from slightly smaller than a Volkswagen Beetle to as big as a tank, as a critical part of efforts to transform the Army into a fleet-footed force that can quickly be deployed to a battle zone.

ROBOT SUBS - Already, smart unmanned subs are set to replace dolphins as undersea mine sniffers. Next tech: mine detonation, remote sleuthing and robotic combat. Nearly undetectable - they operate fully submerged and have low acoustic and magnetic signatures -- they could be sent ahead to conduct surveillance or prepare for an invasion without tipping off enemy forces. They can be small enough to be launched from almost any ship, sub or aircraft -- some are even light enough to be Fed Exed -- and thus can conduct missions in water too shallow for conventional craft. They can be produced relatively inexpensively, so they wouldn't need to be recovered in dangerous or inconvenient circumstances. They would act as "force multipliers", taking care of programmable tasks and freeing up manned warships to take on more complex ones. And they could be sent on the riskiest missions.

MILITARY ROBOTS PREPARE TO MARCH INTO BATTLE - The Army has been in contract for years to develop robots that will be able to make the military a stronger, faster, more efficient fighting force. Sentinel robots that would be stationed inside or outside buildings. Equipped with heat, motion, chemical, biological, or sound sensors, or a combination thereof, they could make the dozing guard a relic of the past.

DEATH RAY - The background to the development of anti-personnel ELECTROMAGNETIC WEAPONS can be traced by to the early-middle 1940's and possibly earlier. The earliest extant reference was contained in the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific Survey, Military Analysis Division, Volume 63) which reviewed Japanese research and development efforts on a "Death Ray." Whilst not reaching the stage of practical application, research was considered sufficiently promising to warrant the expenditure of Yen 2 million during the years 1940-1945. Summarizing the Japanese efforts, allied scientists concluded that a ray apparatus might be developed that could kill unshielded human beings at a distance of 5 to 10 miles. Studies demonstrated that, for example, automobile engines could be stopped by tuned waves as early as 1943.

PHASERS ON STUN - if snipers are in a building, they have a radar system that can look through walls and spot them. And the laser rifle with its dual power setting -- one for "stun" and the other for kill.

AIRCRAFT - High-power lasers disorient enemy pilots and disable cockpit displays. The ABL weapon system will use a high-energy, chemical oxygen iodine laser (COIL) mounted on a modified 747-400F (freighter) aircraft to shoot down theater ballistic missiles in their boost phase. A crew of four, including pilot and copilot, will operate the airborne laser, which will patrol in pairs at high altitude, about 40,000 feet. The jets will fly in orbits over friendly territory, scanning the horizon for the plumes of rising missiles.

TROOPS - Sound generator produces noise to the pain level. Red and blue strobe lights nauseate unfriendly crowds. Hideously awful smells immobilize troops.

TANKS - High-powered microwaves fuse radios and destroy electronic guidance systems of artillery shells. Electromagnetic pulse zaps radios, computers and lighting circuits.

TRUCKS - Microbes eat engine hoses, belts, electrical insulation. "Pyrophoric" particles burn out engines when drawn into air intakes; "slick'em" and "stick'em" sprays make roads impassable. Compounds turn diesel fuel and gasoline into jelly.

EAR-BLASTING ANTI-HIJACK GUN - "It shoots out a pulse of sound that's almost like a bullet," "It's over 140 decibels for a second or two." Sounds become painful between 120 to 130 decibels. Knocked down. To test the system, a man created a cut-down version and turned it on himself. "It almost knocked me on my butt. I wasn't interested in anything for quite a while afterwards," he says. "You could virtually knock a cow on its back with this." "This would be extremely painful and uncomfortable and you would probably lose your hearing for a few hours."
DEVASTATING ELECTRONIC BOMBS - The high-power microwave (HPM) bomb is stored in a briefcase and emits short, high-energy pulses reaching 10 gigawatts -- equal to 10 nuclear reactors. It has a range of a dozen meters, and larger models stored in vans can reach as far as a few hundred meters. The target can be destroyed without alerting anyone. This silent weapon -- which does not explode -- can have disastrous effects, especially if it falls into the hands of terrorists. The bomb presents a threat to jet fighters. It can also knock out the electronic systems of nuclear or electric power plants, banks, trains, or even a simple telephone switchboard. The bomb has also been developed into a pistol which can be used to knock out a single computer or vehicle.

BUNKER BUSTER BOMB - is a special weapon developed for penetrating hardened command centers located deep underground. The GBU-28 is a 5,000-pound laser-guided conventional munition that uses a 4,400-pound penetrating warhead. The bombs are modified Army artillery tubes, weigh 4,637 pounds, and contain 630 pounds of high explosives.

GENETIC BIOWEAPONS - Unlike conventional biological weapons that kill by disabling the nervous system, The genetic weapons would work subtly, and for this reason could strike undetected. Genetically, target agents could affect the birthrates of a population, infant mortality rates, disease proclivity or even crop production." "It might take decades to realize an attack has even occurred. By that point, a population of people might be seriously diminished.

GERM WARFARE - Both private firms and the military have used unknowing human populations to test various theories. During the last 30 years, Cuba has been subjected to an enormous number of outbreaks of human and crop diseases which are difficult to attribute purely natural causes.

LASER OF DEATH - Laser gun zaps missile. During the test of the Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL), it tracked a Katyusha rocket with its radar and then destroyed it with its high-powered laser beam. THEL's defensive capabilities proves that directed energy weapon systems have the potential to play a significant role in defending US national security interests world-wide," said Lieutenant General John Costello. The laser is a potentially potent weapon as the beam travels literally at the speed of light and can cross great distances with minimal loss of intensity. Such a beam could knock out targets at distances ranging from tens of kilometres to, in theory, thousands of kilometres. Lasers were behind the space-based missile defence shield idea, labelled "Star Wars", first suggested by US President Ronald Reagan in 1983.

ANTI-GRAVITY PROJECT - Secret anti-gravity experiments that could revolutionize the conventional aerospace industry and lead to "free energy" are underway in Seattle. The project at Boeing's Phantom Works advanced research and development facility is now trying to solicit the services of a Russian scientist who claims to have developed anti-gravity devices in Russia and Finland. It has its own code name of "GRASP," for Gravity Research for Advanced Space Propulsion. Boeing says such uses could include space-launch systems, artificial gravity on spacecraft, aircraft propulsion and electricity generation without fuel - so-called "free energy". Additionally, there's a military potential as Podkletnov's work could be engineered into a stunning new weapon, capable of vaporizing objects moving at high speed. A device called an "impulse gravity generator" is capable of producing a beam of gravity-like energy that can exert an instantaneous force of 1,000-G on any object.

MORE WAR, MORE DEAD - Wars and battles, skirmishes and ambushes -- fighting rages day and night through cease-fires and truce talks around the world. It happens on Belfast's streets, along Iran's and Iraq's 1,000-mile front, in Central America's mountainous jungles. And it won't stop just because Pope John Paul II declared "World Peace Day" and called on everyone with a weapon to put it down. "It's going to get worse before it gets better" said Richard Staar, international studies director at the Hoover Institution of War, Revolution and Peace in Pal Alto, Calif. "There are more wars with more people killed all over the world than 10 years ago." True, it's been years since the world's major powers last bombed and shelled each other, but on any day soldiers are firing in 30 to 40 nations. Wars of liberation. Territorial disputes. Religious principles "One man's freedom fighter is another's terrorist," the saying goes, but the common denominator is death. The Center for Defense Information estimates the number killed since the early 1970's...is 7.1 million. "Body counts" vary, but most participants agree peace is unlikely. The bottom line: 1.56 billion -- one in three of the world's 4.84 billion people -- live in lands enduring armed conflict. Ahead? Staar says: "Regional conflict will increase."
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References:

COCKROACHES THAT CAN BE USED AS SPIES; By Robert Uhlig, Technology Correspondent (Filed: 26/09/2001)
THE ALL-SEEING EM WAVE by Charles Overbeck; Matrix Editor; EASTERISLE@parascope.com
NEW GUNS RIDE THE RAILS; Texas Co-op Power, August 1998
VIRTUAL PRISON: The Electronic Orbiting Warden; by Patricia Neill; Special Assignments Team;ParaScope@aol.com
VIRTUAL PRISON: by Patricia Neill; ParaScope@aol.com
EAR-BLASTING ANTI-HIJACK GUN; New Scientist.com; 14 November 01
DEVASTATING ELECTRONIC BOMBS; Stockholm (afp)
BUNKER BUSTER BOMBS; CBS News Interactive
CONCRETE SUBMARINES; Popular Mechanics; by Jim Wilson
DAISY CUTTER; CBS News Interactive; Sources: Federation of American Scientists; Department of Defense
E-BOMB; Popular Mechanics; by Jim Wilson
GENETIC BIOWEAPONS; Popular Mechanics; by Jim Wilson
GERM WARFARE EXPERIMENTS; Sightings; Email eotl@west.net
LASER GUN ZAPS MISSILE; BBC News; Thursday, 8 June, 2000, 12:04 GMT 13:04 UK
MILITARY WARMS ANEW TO ROBOTS; The Wall Street Journal; By Anne Marie Squeo
HAND-HELD NEUTRON BOMBS; Sightings; By David M. Bresnahan
MILITARY ROBOTS PREPARE TO MARCH INTO BATTLE; Fox News; Friday, January 11, 2002; By Michael Y. Park
ANTI-GRAVITY PROJECT TO MEAN FREE ENERGY; World New Daily; Posted: July 31, 2002
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Importance of Electronics in Automobiles

Frost & Sullivan has recently made public their new report on the current status of ASIC, ASSP, and FPGA markets. The report not only states how the industry is faring but also forecasts what will be the trends in the markets and what will be the challenges that it will have to confront.
In the study, the experts analyzed also other factors that affect the industry directly like their end-users. They include also in their studies body and chassis, central command, telematics, power train, engine control, safety and security, and driver relevant information. The main thing that the study shows is that more and more electronics are being used on automobiles which increased the demand for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs.
Today’s vehicles are becoming more and more reliant on electronic components. Different systems of a vehicle that are being developed and produced today are equipped with electronic systems which aid the mechanical parts in performing effectively. Fuel injection systems for cars rely on electronic components to provide the engine with the right amount of fuel. Likewise, safety systems also rely heavily on electronic circuits to provide optimum safety to the occupants of a car in the event of a crash. Braking systems also depend on electronic components like the anti-lock braking system (ABS).

The automobile specific integrated circuit (ASIC), application specific standard products (ASSPs), and the field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) markets have been achieving much success, thanks to the needs for the said products in the automotive industry. The increase in the number of consumers means that the demand for the said electronic parts will also rise. Other factors that made the need for electronic parts are government pollution mandates, safety and security regulations, and the oil crisis. The use of electronic components also reduces manufacturing costs since human errors are very much avoided.

In the automotive industry, the introduction of luxury features also increased the need for specialized electronic components. The popularity of hybrid vehicles like the popular Toyota Prius also made the demand increase. Electronic components are needed on hybrid vehicles to facilitate the smooth change of power from engine to electric motor muscle. Other mandatory safety systems also need electronic components. Electronic stability systems rely on electronics to keep the car stable especially while cornering. Suspension systems also depends on electronics as shown by electronically controlled independent suspension systems employed by the latest mass produced vehicles.

Due to the increase in the demand of such, the industry is expected to generate considerable revenues especially in the European region’s market where the industry is doing a very good business. While Europe may be the leading region in terms of production of ASICs, ASSPs, and FPGAs, Asian countries are joining the bandwagon. The region has become the fastest growing segments due to the increasing automobile sales in the said area. Without the aid of electronic components, even high quality parts like brake components from EBC Active Brakes Direct will not perform to the best of their capabilities.

While the industry may be enjoying much success, they still have to come up with more world class electronic design automation software tools to provide better service to their end users. Fierce competition is also expected since there are companies that are already established which will make it hard for smaller enterprises to break into the market and stake their claims in a share in the growing market. The analysts said that there is a possibility that the large and established companies will acquire smaller companies to increase their productivity. Analysts further said that the market for electronic components will grow dramatically as the technology used in cars will likely advance in the future.

Anthony Fontanelle is a 35-year-old automotive buff who grew up in the Windy City. He does freelance work for an automotive magazine when he is not busy customizing cars in his shop.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Anthony_Fontanelle

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MLA Style Citation:Fontanelle, Anthony "Use of Electronics in Automobiles Increased Demands for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs." Use of Electronics in Automobiles Increased Demands for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs. 13 Feb. 2007. EzineArticles.com. 10 Jun 2009 <http://ezinearticles.com/?Use-of-Electronics-in-Automobiles-Increased-Demands-for-ASIC,-ASSP,-and-FPGAs&id=452655>.
APA Style Citation:Fontanelle, A. (2007, February 13). Use of Electronics in Automobiles Increased Demands for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs. Retrieved June 10, 2009, from http://ezinearticles.com/?Use-of-Electronics-in-Automobiles-Increased-Demands-for-ASIC,-ASSP,-and-FPGAs&id=452655
Chicago Style Citation:Fontanelle, Anthony "Use of Electronics in Automobiles Increased Demands for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs." Use of Electronics in Automobiles Increased Demands for ASIC, ASSP, and FPGAs EzineArticles.com. http://ezinearticles.com/?Use-of-Electronics-in-Automobiles-Increased-Demands-for-ASIC,-ASSP,-and-FPGAs&id=452655

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Modern Electronics for Agriculture

Interpretive Summary: The manual collection of field and laboratory data can be time- and labor-intensive. These constraints result in data often being collected at irregular or infrequent intervals. Automating the data-collection process can provide more information at regular and frequent intervals, and reduce labor requirements and costs. Advances in electronics and the availability and ease of use of electronic devices and components has made it easier and more affordable to automate many control and data-collection processes. The features and capabilities of modern microcontrollers, semiconductor sensors, and auxiliary components are presented and discussed. These components are used to construct circuit boards which automatically and continuously collect agricultural field data which had previously been collected manually. Several examples of custom-designed electronic control and data-collection devices are presented and discussed. Automating control and data-collection processes can result in time, labor, and cost savings, while providing increases in the frequency and quality of information. Awareness and understanding of the capabilities of modern electronic components and devices will allow researchers, equipment companies, and entrepreneurs to more easily automate processes, reduce labor requirements, and provide higher-quality information.

Technical Abstract: The field of electronics continues to change and evolve rapidly. Electronics are increasingly being used to collect and process all types of data, transfer information, make decisions, and provide automation and control functions. Modern microcontrollers and semiconductor components offer many advantages and ease of use in designing custom measurement and control systems. An array of microcontrollers, sensors, and accessory components are presented and their features, capabilities, and costs are discussed. Several measurement and datalogging circuits were designed for use in irrigation-related research activities. The design, implementation, and performance of these systems are described.

Importance of Electronics in Routine Life

Using electronics today is so much a part of our daily lives we hardly think of the way the world would be without electronics. Everything from cooking to music uses electronics or electronic components in some way. Our family car has many electronic components, as does our cooking stove, laptop and cell phone. Children and teenagers carry mobile phones with them everywhere and use them to take and send pictures, videos, and to play music. They send text messages on the cell phone to other phones and to their home computers.

Wireless internet is becoming more common all the time, with laptops set up in cyber cafes where people can drink coffee and check their email all at the same time. The computer user can do all the web searching in relative privacy thanks to the electronic accessories which can be added to the computer. Conversely, more and more transactions are being sent electronically across the airwaves so security is becoming a larger issue than ever before. Merchants who sell products online must be able to assure their customers that information submitted at a website is not being accessed by unauthorized personnel.

Music is a prime user of electronics, both in recording and in playback mode. Stereos, record players, tape decks, cassette players, CD drives and DVD players are all the result of advances in electronics technology in the last few decades. Today people can carry a playlist of hundreds of songs around with them easily in a very small device--easily portable. When you add Bluetooth or headphones the music can be heard by the user, but does not disturb those nearby.

Electronics technology in cameras has increased dramatically. A digital camera is available to most Americans at a price they can afford and cellphones often includes a fairly sophisticated digital camera that can capture still pictures or even video pictures and store them or transfer them to a computer where they can be saved, shared digitally with family or friends or printed out in hard form with a photo printer device. Pictures obtained through a camera or by means of a scanner can be edited, cropped, enhanced or enlarged easily through the marvel of electronics.

Literally thousands of everyday devices that we use constantly make use of electronics technology in order to operate. These are products ranging from automotive engines to automated equipment in production settings. Even artistic efforts benefit from computer modeling prior to the committing of valuable artistic media to create the finished product.

Electronics devices are being used in the health field, not only to assist in diagnosis and determination of medical problems, but to assist in the research that is providing treatment and cures for illnesses and even genetic anomalies. Equipment such as MRI, CAT and the older X-rays, tests for diabetes, cholesterol and other blood component tests all rely on electronics in order to do their work quickly and accurately. Pacemakers and similar equipment implanted in the body is now almost routine.

http://www.surveillancetechnology.com/ can help you protect yourself and others by electronic
spy cameras. Visit; http://www.surveillancetechnology.com/electronic-know-how.htm

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Andrew_Stratton

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History of Transistor

The Transistor in a Century of Electronics

A Three Terminal Device

The transistor is a three terminal, solid state electronic device. In a three terminal device we can control electric current or voltage between two of the terminals by applying an electric current or voltage to the third terminal. This three terminal character of the transistor is what allows us to make an amplifier for electrical signals, like the one in our radio. With the three-terminal transistor we can also make an electric switch, which can be controlled by another electrical switch. By cascading these switches (switches that control switches that control switches, etc.) we can build up very complicated logic circuits.

These logic circuits can be built very compact on a silicon chip with 1,000,000 transistors per square centimeter. We can turn them on and off very rapidly by switching every 0.000000001 seconds. Such logic chips are at the heart of your personal computer and many other gadgets you use today.

Light Bulbs and Vacuum Tubes

The transistor was not the first three terminal device. The vacuum tube triode preceded the transistor by nearly 50 years. Vacuum tubes played an important role in the emergence of home electronics and in the scientific discoveries and technical innovations which are the foundation for our modern electronic technology.

Thomas Edison's light bulb was one of the first uses of vacuum tubes for electrical applications. Soon after the discovery of the light bulb, a third electrode was placed in the vacuum tube to investigate the effect that this electrode would have on "cathode rays," which were observed around the filament of the light bulb.

Joseph John Thomson developed a vacuum tube to carefully investigate the nature of cathode rays, which resulted in his discovery, published in 1897. He showed that the cathode rays were really made up of particles, or "corpuscles" as Thomson called them, that were contained in all material. Thomson had discovered the electron, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics 1906.

Lee De Forest and The Radio

At the same time as physicists were trying to understand what cathode rays were, engineers were trying to apply them to make electronic devices. In 1906, an American inventor and physicists, Lee De Forest, made the vacuum tube triode, or audion as he called it. The triode was a three terminal device that allowed him to make an amplifier for audio signals, making AM radio possible. Radio revolutionized the way in which information and entertainment reached the great majority of people.

The vacuum tube triode also helped push the development of computers forward a great deal. Electronic tubes were used in several different computer designs in the late 1940's and early 1950's. But the limits of these tubes were soon reached. As the electric circuits became more complicated, one needed more and more triodes. Engineers packed several triodes into one vacuum tube (that is why the tube has so many legs) to make the tube circuits more efficient.

Early Computers

The vacuum tubes tended to leak, and the metal that emitted electrons in the vacuum tubes burned out. The tubes also required so much power that big and complicated circuits were too large and took too much energy to run. In the late 1940's, big computers were built with over 10,000 vacuum tubes and occupied over 93 square meters of space.

The problems with vacuum tubes lead scientists and engineers to think of other ways to make three terminal devices. Instead of using electrons in vacuum, scientists began to consider how one might control electrons in solid materials, like metals and semiconductors.

Already in the 1920's, scientists understood how to make a two terminal device by making a point contact between a sharp metal tip and a piece of semiconductor crystal. These point-contact diodes were used to rectify signals (change oscillating signals to steady signals), and make simple AM radio receivers (crystal radios). However, it took many years before the three terminal solid state device - the transistor - was discovered.

The First Transistor

In 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, working at Bell Telephone Laboratories, were trying to understand the nature of the electrons at the interface between a metal and a semiconductor. They realized that by making two point contacts very close to one another, they could make a three terminal device - the first "point contact" transistor.

They quickly made a few of these transistors and connected them with some other components to make an audio amplifier. This audio amplifier was shown to chief executives at Bell Telephone Company, who were very impressed that it didn't need time to "warm up" (like the heaters in vacuum tube circuits). They immediately realized the power of this new technology.

This invention was the spark that ignited a huge research effort in solid state electronics. Bardeen and Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics, 1956, together with William Shockley, "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect." Shockley had developed a so-called junction transistor, which was built on thin slices of different types of semiconductor material pressed together. The junction transistor was easier to understand theoretically, and could be manufactured more reliably.

Limits of Individual Transistors

For many years, transistors were made as individual electronic components and were connected to other electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, etc.) on boards to make an electronic circuit. They were much smaller than vacuum tubes and consumed much less power. Electronic circuits could be made more complex, with more transistors switching faster than tubes.
However, it did not take long before the limits of this circuit construction technique were reached. Circuits based on individual transistors became too large and too difficult to assemble. There were simply too many electronic components to deal with. The transistor circuits were faster than vacuum tube circuits, and there were noticeable problems due to time delays for electric signals to propagate a long distance in these large circuits. To make the circuits even faster, one needed to pack the transistors closer and closer together.

The Integrated Circuit

In 1958 and 1959, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Camera, came up with a solution to the problem of large numbers of components, and the integrated circuit was developed. Instead of making transistors one-by-one, several transistors could be made at the same time, on the same piece of semiconductor. Not only transistors, but other electric components such as resistors, capacitors and diodes could be made by the same process with the same materials.

For more than 30 years, since the 1960's, the number of transistors per unit area has been doubling every 1.5 years. This fantastic progression of circuit fabrication is known as Moore's law, after Gordon Moore, one of the early integrated circuit pioneers and founders of Intel Corporation. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 was awarded to Jack Kilby for the invention of the integrated circuit.

From the dawn of the vacuum tube triode, to the discovery of the transistor and the development of the integrated circuit, the 20th century has certainly been the century of electronics.

By Professor David B Haviland

First published 19 December 2002



More about the Transistor»

History of Radar

The history of radar began in the 1900s when engineers invented simple uni-directional ranging devices. The technique developed through the 1920s and 1930s, leading to the introduction of the first early warning radar networks just before the opening of World War II. Progress during the war was rapid; by the end the United States widely deployed radars that fit in a single semi-trailer.
The place of radar in the larger story of science and technology is argued differently by different authors. Radar, far more than the atomic bomb, contributed to Allied victory in World War II.[1] Robert Buderi[2] states that it was also the precursor of much modern technology. From a review of his book[3]:
... radar has been the root of a wide range of achievements since the war, producing a veritable family tree of modern technologies. Because of radar, astronomers can map the contours of far-off planets, physicians can see images of internal organs, meteorologists can measure rain falling in distant places, air travel is hundreds of times safer than travel by road, long-distance telephone calls are cheaper than postage, computers have become ubiquitous and ordinary people can cook their daily dinners in the time between sitcoms, with what used to be called a radar range.
But others think that radar is not so important, since the principles were not new:
Le principe fondamental du radar appartient au patrimoine commun des physiciens : ce qui demeure en fin de compte au crédit réel des techniciens se mesure à la réalisation effective de matériels opérationnels., or roughly
The fundamental principle of the radar belongs to the common patrimony of the physicists : after all, what is left to the real credit of the technicians is measured by the effective realisation of operational materials".

Before the twentieth century

In 1887 the German physicist Heinrich Hertz began experimenting with radio waves in his laboratory. He found that radio waves could be transmitted through different types of materials, and were reflected by others, such as conductors and dielectrics. The existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted earlier by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, but it was Hertz who first succeeded in generating and detecting radio waves.

1900s

[edit] Christian Huelsmeyer
In 1904 Christian Huelsmeyer gave public demonstrations in Germany and the Netherlands of the use of radio echoes to detect ships so that collisions could be avoided. His device consisted of a simple spark gap aimed using a multipole antenna. When a reflection was picked up by the two straight antennas attached to the separate receiver, a bell sounded. During bad weather or fog, the device would be periodically "spun" to check for nearby ships. The system detected presence of ships up to 3 km, and he planned to extend its capability to 10 km. It did not provide range information, only warning of a nearby object. He patented the device, called the telemobiloscope, but due to lack of interest by the naval authorities the invention was not put into production.
Also in 1904, Huelsmeyer received a patent of amendment for ranging that is indirectly related to his device.[4] Using a vertical scan of the horizon with the telemobiloscope mounted on a tower, the operator would find the angle at which the return was the most intense and deduce, by simple triangulation, the approximate distance. This is in contrast to the later development of pulsed radar, which determines distance directly.

[edit] Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla, in August 1917, proposed principles regarding frequency and power levels for primitive radar units. In the 1917 The Electrical Experimenter, Tesla stated the principles in detail:
"For instance, by their [standing electromagnetic waves] use we may produce at will, from a sending station, an electrical effect in any particular region of the globe; [with which] we may determine the relative position or course of a moving object, such as a vessel at sea, the distance traversed by the same, or its speed."
Tesla also proposed the use of these standing electromagnetic waves along with pulsed reflected surface waves to determine the relative position, speed, and course of a moving object and other modern concepts of radar.
Tesla had first proposed that radio location might help find submarines (for which it is not well-suited) with a fluorescent screen indicator.

[edit] Naval Research Laboratory
In the autumn of 1922, Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) were conducting communication experiments when they noticed that a wooden ship in the Potomac River was interfering with their signals; in effect, they had demonstrated the first continuous wave (CW) interference radar with separated transmitting and receiving antennas. In June, 1930, Lawrence A. Hyland of the NRL in the U.S. detected an airplane with this type of radar operating on 33 MHz.
Simple wave-interference radar can detect the presence of an object, but it cannot determine its location or velocity. That had to await the invention of pulse radar, and later, additional encoding techniques to extract this information from a CW signal. The British and the US research groups were independently aware of the advantages of such an approach, but the problem was to develop the timing equipment to make it feasible. In the early 1930s, Taylor assigned one of his engineers, Robert M. Page, to implement a demonstration system of the pulsed radar idea that he and Young had theorized. Page produced and operated such a pulse system in December 1934[citation needed] using pulses of 25 MHz and 5 μs width. An important development by Young and Page was the Radar Duplexer. This allowed the transmitter and receiver to use the same antenna without destroying the sensitive receiver circuitry.
The Robert Page experiments with pulse radar were conducted at the NRL in 1934 and 1935. On April 28, 1936, their first pulse radar was demonstrated successfully at a range of 2.5 miles on a small airplane flying up and down the Potomac, but by June of that year, the range was extended to 25 miles (40 km). Their radar was based on low frequency signals, at least by today's standards, and thus required large antennas, making it impractical for ship or aircraft mounting.

[edit] Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie Sans Fil (CSF)
In 1927, French engineers Camille Gutton and Pierret experimented with wavelengths going down to 16 cm. Other engineers, Mesny and David, noticed repeatedly since 1931 that an aircraft flying between a transmitter and a receiver would disturb a radio communication. This was the basis of a device put into operational use in 1935 by the Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie Sans Fil (CSF) to detect airplanes flying over a given zone.
In 1934, Henri Gutton (the son of the former, and engineer of the CSF) resumed his father's experiments after initial reports made by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in 1930 (see above) and brought improvements to the magnetron. Emile Girardeau [2], the head of the CSF, recalled in testimony that they were at the time intending to build radar systems "conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla". The CSF submitted the French patent (no. 788.795, "New system of location of obstacles and its applications") on July 20 1934, for a device detecting obstacles (icebergs, ships, planes) using pulses of ultra-short wavelengths produced by a magnetron. This is the first patent of an operational radar using centimetric wavelengths. The radar was tested from November to December 1934 aboard the cargo ship Oregon, with two transmitters working at 80 cm and 16 cm wavelengths. Coastlines were detected from a range of 10-12 nautical miles. The shortest wavelength was chosen for the final design, which equipped the liner Normandie as early as mid-1935 for operational use.

[edit] Robert Watson-Watt
In 1915 Robert Watson-Watt joined the Meteorological Office as a meteorologist. Working at an outstation at Aldershot, in Hampshire, Britain, he developed the use of radio signals generated by lightning strikes to map out the position of thunderstorms. The difficulty in pinpointing the direction of these fleeting signals led to the use of rotating directional antennas, and in 1923 the use of oscilloscopes in order to display them. An operator would periodically rotate the antenna and look for "spikes" on the oscilloscope to find the direction of a storm. At this point the only missing part of a functioning radar was the transmitter.
By 1934 Watson-Watt was well established in the area of radio as head of the Radio Research Station at Ditton Park near Slough. He was approached by H.E. Wimperis from the Air Ministry, who asked about the use of radio to produce a 'death ray', after hearing Germans claims to have built such a device. Watt quickly wrote back that this was unlikely, and he pointed out that in the absence of progress, meanwhile attention is being turned to the still difficult, but less unpromising, problem of radio detection and numerical considerations on the method of detection by reflected radio waves will be submitted when required. Watson-Watt and his assistant Arnold Wilkins published a report on the topic on February 12, 1935, titled The Detection of Aircraft by Radio Methods.

The Daventry Experiment 26 February 1935, set up by A.F.Wilkins and his driver, Dyer, to demonstrate the feasibility of RADAR.
On February 26, 1935 Watson-Watt and Wilkins demonstrated a basic radar system to an observer from the Air Ministry Committee the Detection of Aircraft. The previous day Wilkins had set up receiving equipment in a field near Upper Stowe, Northamptonshire, and this was used to detect the presence of a Handley Page Heyford bomber at ranges up to 8 miles (13 km) by means of the radio waves which it reflected from the nearby Daventry shortwave radio transmitter of the BBC, which operated at a wavelength of 49 m (6 MHz). This convincing demonstration, known as the Daventry Experiment, led immediately to development of radar in the UK.

[edit] Allen B. DuMont
In 1932, Allen B. DuMont proposed a "ship finder" device to the United States Army Signal Corps at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, that used radio wave distortions to locate objects on a cathode ray tube screen. The military asked him, however, not to take out a patent for developing what they wanted to maintain as a secret, and so he is not often mentioned among those responsible for radar. He did, however, go on to develop long-range precision radar to aid the Allies during WWII. As a consequence the French Government knighted him in 1952.

[edit] Soviet Early Radar
On January 3, 1934 Soviet scientists successfully tested experimental radar, developed by joint project between Central artillery Board of Soviet Army (GAU) and Central radio Laboratory (TsRL). A plane, flying at an altitude of about 150 meters, was able to be detected at a distance of around 600/ 700 meters of a radar facility.[citation needed]
Later in the same 1934 year radar devices for AA (anti-aircraft artillery) were created under contract between Central artillery Board of Soviet Army (GAU) and LEFI (Electrical and Physical Institute of Leningrad).[citation needed]
On July, 1934 an experimental radar station called "Rapid" was tested near by Leningrad by engineers of LEFI (Electrical and Physical Institute of Leningrad) under contract with AD (air defence) Board of Soviet Army.[citation needed]

[edit] Dutch early radar
Several years before Watson-Watt, Dutch scientists Weiler and Gratema were inspired by queries about "death rays" from their military, to start developing radar. They were well advanced by May 1940, and had built four working prototypes of centrimetric gunlaying radar operating at a wavelength of 50 cm and a practical range of 20 km[5]. Technically far more sophisticated than British early warning radar of the time, it was not operationally integrated into the armed forces. As the Luftwaffe destroyed the Dutch air force on its airfields, landed thousands of airborne troops on the seat of government, and laid waste to the city of Rotterdam, radar operators could only track their planes. Says Max Staal: "frustratingly, we had nothing to shoot at them with". Some scientists escaped to Britain before the Dutch capitulation on May 14, 1940, taking with them prototypes that aided the development of the British-American centrimetric radar[6][7].

[edit] Hans Hollmann
Meanwhile in Germany, Hans Hollmann had been working for some time in the field of microwaves, which were to later become the basis of almost all radar systems. In 1935 he published Physics and Technique of Ultrashort Waves, which was picked up by researchers around the world. At the time he had been most interested in their use for communications, but he and his partner Hans-Karl von Willisen had also worked on radar-like systems.
In the autumn of 1934 their company, GEMA, built the first commercial radar system for detecting ships. Operating in the 50 cm range it could detect ships up to 10 km away. This device was similar in purpose to Huelsmeyer's earlier system, and like it, did not provide range information.
In the summer of 1935 a pulse radar was developed with which they could spot a light cruiser, the Königsberg, 8 km away, with an accuracy of up to 50 m, enough for gun-laying. The same system could also detect an aircraft at 500 m altitude at a distance of 28 km. The military implications were not lost this time around, and construction of land and sea-based versions took place as Freya and Seetakt.

[edit] World War II
At the start of World War II both the United Kingdom and Germany knew of each other's ongoing efforts in their "battle of the beams". Both nations were intensely interested in the other's developments in the field, and engaged in an active campaign of espionage and false leaks about their respective equipment. By the time of the Battle of Britain, both sides were deploying radar units and control stations as part of integrated air defense capability. However, German radars could not assist in offensive role and the Luftwaffe did not sufficiently appreciate the importance of British radar stations as part of RAF's air defense capability, contributing to their failure.
Research had been initiated by Sir Henry Tizard's Aeronautical Research Committee in 1935 and, from 1940, was based at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE). But much of the credit belongs to Watson-Watt, head of the team working at Bawdsey Manor in Suffolk, who turned from the technical side of radar to building up a usable network of machines and the people to run them. After watching a demonstration in which his radar operators were attempting to locate an "attacking" bomber, he noticed that the primary problem was not technological, but worker overload. By 1940 Watt had built up a layered organization that efficiently passed information along the chain of command, and was able to track large numbers of aircraft and direct defenses to them.

[edit] UK
See also: List of World War II British naval radar

[edit] Chain Home
Shortly before the outbreak of World War II several radar stations known as Chain Home (or CH) were constructed along the South and East coasts of Britain, based on the successful model at Bawdsey. As one might expect from the first radar to be deployed, CH was a simple system. The broadcast side was formed from two 300 ft (100 ;m) tall steel towers strung with a series of antennas between them. A second set of 240 ft (73 m) tall wooden towers were used for reception, with a series of crossed antennas at various heights up to 215 ft (65 m). Most stations had more than one set of each antenna, tuned to operate at different frequencies.
Typical operating conditions were:
FREQUENCY: 20 to 30 MHz (15 to 10 metres).
PEAK POWER: 350 kW (later 750 kW).
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY: 25 and 12.5 pps.
PULSE LENGTH: 20 μs.
The CH radar was read with an oscilloscope. When a pulse was sent out into the broadcast towers, the scope was triggered to start its beam moving horizontally across the screen very rapidly. The output from the receiver was amplified and fed into the vertical axis of the scope, so a return from an aircraft would deflect the beam upward. This formed a spike on the display, and the distance from the left side –measured with a small scale on the bottom of the screen– would give the distance to the target. By rotating the receiver goniometer connected to the antennas to make the display disappear, the operator could determine the direction to the target (this is the reason for the cross shaped antennas), while the size of the vertical displacement indicated something of the number of aircraft involved. By comparing the strengths returned from the various antennas up the tower, the altitude could be determined to some degree of accuracy.
CH proved highly effective during the Battle of Britain, and is often credited with allowing the RAF to defeat the much larger Luftwaffe forces. Whereas the Luftwaffe had to hunt all over to find the RAF fighters, the RAF knew exactly where the Luftwaffe bombers were, and could converge all of their fighters on them. In modern terminology, CH was a force multiplier, allowing the RAF fighters to operate more effectively as if they were a much larger force operating at the same effectiveness as the Germans. In addition, the CH system allowed pilots to rest on the ground instead of flying continuous 'standing patrols', and only needing to 'scramble' (take off) when the air threat was imminent. This not only reduced pilot's workloads, but also reduced wear on engines, as well as reducing unnecessary petrol consumption.
Very early in the battle the Luftwaffe made a series of small raids on a few of the stations, including the Bawdsey research and training station, but they were returned to operation in a few days. In the meantime the operators took to broadcasting radar-like signals from other systems in order to fool the Germans into believing that the systems were still operating. Eventually the Germans gave up trying to bomb them. The Luftwaffe apparently never understood the importance of radar to the RAF's efforts, or they would have assigned them a much higher priority – even a concerted effort would not have had much effect on the transmitters as their structure made them very resistant to blast which passed through the spaces in the metal lattice.
In order to avoid the CH system the Luftwaffe adopted other tactics. One was to approach Britain at very low levels, below the sight line of the radar stations. This was countered to some degree with a series of shorter range stations built right on the coast, known as Chain Home Low (CHL). These radars had originally been intended to use for naval gun-laying and known as Coastal Defence (CD), but their narrow beams also meant they could sweep an area much closer to the ground without seeing the reflection of the ground (or water) –known as clutter. Unlike the larger CH systems, CHL had to have the broadcast antenna itself turned, as opposed to just the receiver. This was done manually on a pedal-crank system run by Women's Auxiliary Air Force until more reliable motorized movements were installed in 1941.

[edit] Ground Controlled Intercept
Similar systems were later adapted with a new display to produce the Ground Controlled Intercept stations in January 1941. In these systems the antenna was rotated mechanically, followed by the display on the operator's console. That is, instead of a single line across the bottom of the display from left to right, the line was rotated around the screen at the same speed as the antenna was turning.
The result was a 2-D display of the air around the station with the operator in the middle, with all the aircraft appearing as dots in the proper location in space. These so-called Plan Position Indicators (PPI) dramatically simplified the amount of work needed to track a target on the operator's part. Such a system with a rotating, or sweeping, line is what most people continue to associate with a radar display.

[edit] Airborne Intercept
Rather than avoid the radars, the Luftwaffe took to avoiding the fighters by flying at night and in bad weather. Although the RAF was aware of the location of the bombers, there was little they could do about them unless the fighter pilots could see the opposing planes.[citation needed]
This eventuality had already been foreseen, and a successful programme by Edward George Bowen in 1936 (likely at the urging of Tizard) developed a miniaturized radar system suitable for aircraft, the so-called Airborne Interception (AI) set. At the same time Bowen developed radar sets for aircraft to detect submarines, the Air to Surface Vessel (ASV) set, making a significant contribution to the defeat of the German U-boats.[citation needed]
Initial AI sets were available in 1939 and fitted to Bristol Blenheim aircraft, replaced quickly with the better performing Bristol Beaufighter. These quickly put an end to German night- and bad-weather bombing over Britain. Mosquito night intruders were fitted with AI Mk VIII and later derivatives which, along with a device called "Serrate" to allow them to track down German night fighters from their Lichtenstein B/C and SN2 radar emissions, as well as a device named "Perfectos" that tracked German IFF, allowed the Mosquito to find and destroy German night fighters. As a countermeasure the German night fighters employed Naxos ZR radar detectors.[citation needed]

[edit] Centimetric radar
The next major development in the history of radar was the invention of the cavity magnetron by John Randall and Harry Boot of Birmingham University in early 1940.[citation needed] This was a small device which generated microwave frequencies much more efficiently than previous devices, allowing the development of practical centimetric radar, which operates in the radio frequency band from 3 to 30 GHz.[citation needed] Centimetric radar allowed for the detection of much smaller objects and the use of much smaller antennas than the earlier lower frequency radars, and the cavity magnetron is the single most important invention in the history of radar.[citation needed] It was given free as a gift to the US in 1940 together with several other inventions such as jet technology, partly to encourage them to enter the war on the side of the British.[citation needed] Simultaneously, Robert M. Page invented the duplexer switch at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, allowing a pulse transmitter and receiver to share the same antenna without destabilizing the sensitive receiver.[citation needed]
The combination of the magnetron, the duplexer switch, small antennas and high resolution allowed small high quality radars to be installed in aircraft. They could be used by maritime patrol aircraft to detect objects as small as a submarine periscope, which allowed aircraft to attack and destroy submerged submarines which had previously been undetectable from the air.[citation needed] Centimetric contour mapping radars like H2S improved the accuracy of Allied bombers used in the strategic bombing campaign. Centimetric gun laying radars were much more accurate than the older technology. They made the big gunned Allied battleships more deadly and along with the newly developed proximity fuze made anti-aircraft guns much more dangerous to attacking aircraft. The two coupled together and used by anti-aircraft batteries, placed along on the German V-1 flying bomb flight paths to London, are credited with destroying many of the flying bombs before they reached their target.[citation needed]
The British need to produce the magnetron in large quantities was so great that Edward George Bowen was sent as the radar expert in the Tizard Mission to the USA in 1940, which resulted in the creation of the MIT Radiation Lab to develop the device further. Half of the radar deployed during World War II were designed at the RadLab, including over 100 different radar systems costing $1.5 billion.[citation needed]

[edit] Germany
German developments mirrored those in the United Kingdom, but it appears radar received a much lower priority until later in the war.[citation needed] The Freya radar was much more sophisticated than its CH counterpart[citation needed], and by operating in the 1.2–m wavelength (as opposed to ten times that for the CH) around 250 MHz the Freya was able to be much smaller and yet offer better resolution.[citation needed] Yet by the start of the war only eight of these units were in operation, offering much less coverage.[citation needed]
Compared to the British PPI systems, the German system was far more labour intensive.[citation needed] This problem was compounded by the lackadaisical approach to command staffing.[citation needed] It was some time before the Luftwaffe had a command and control system nearly as sophisticated as the one set up by Watson-Watt before the war.[citation needed]
This state of affairs did not last long. By 1940 the RAF's night raids were becoming a nuisance, and action was finally taken to address the problem. Josef Kammhuber was promoted to become the General of the Night Fighters and set about creating a network of Freya radar stations in a chain of "cells" through Holland, Belgium and France. Known as the Kammhuber Line, each cell of the network contained a radar and a number of searchlights, as well as one primary and one backup night fighter. When a bomber was detected flying into the cell the searchlights were directed by the radar to pick it up, at which point the night fighter could see the now-lit bomber.[citation needed]
While somewhat effective, the system was useless during bad weather or other times where the light would be blocked.[citation needed] In order to address this problem, the Würzburg radar was developed. Würzburg was a short-range radar mounted on a highly directional parabolic antenna that was sensitive in only one direction. This made it useless for finding the targets, but once guided to one by an associated Freya it could track it with extreme accuracy: later models were accurate to 0.2 degrees or less.[citation needed]
Two Würzburgs were assigned to each cell, one to track the target bomber, and another the night fighter. By plotting the location of both aircraft on a common plotting table, radio operators could direct the fighter manually to the target. The downfall of the Kammhuber Line was that it could only track a single target per Würzburg.[citation needed] When the British learned of this, they directed operations such that all their bombers concentrated on crossing the line en masse over as few cells as possible. This bomber stream introduced in mid 1942 meant that as a raid developed, only a few night fighters could be directed into the raid at any one time, and bomber losses dropped to a handful per raid.[citation needed]

[edit] Airborne radars

Bf 110 night fighters
The use of the accurate Freya and Würzburg allowed the Germans to have a somewhat more lackadaisical approach to the development of an airborne radar.[citation needed] Unlike the British, whose inaccurate CH systems demanded some sort of system in the aircraft, the Würzburg was accurate enough to allow them to leave the radar on the ground.[citation needed] This came back to haunt them when the British figured out their system, and the development of an airborne system became much more important.[citation needed]
Early Lichtenstein BC units were not deployed until 1942, and as they operated on the 2–m wavelength (150–MHz) they required large antennas. By this point in the war the British had become experts on jamming German radars, and when a BC-equipped Ju 88 night fighter landed in Britain one foggy night, it was only a few weeks before the system was rendered completely useless. By late 1943 the Luftwaffe was starting to deploy the greatly improved SN-2, but this required huge antennas that slowed the planes as much as 50–km/h. Jamming the SN-2 took longer, but was accomplished. A 9–cm wavelength system known as Berlin was eventually developed, but only in the very last months of the war.[citation needed]

[edit] US

1946 newsreel
After early U.S. work on radar conducted in the twenties at the Naval Research Laboratories, the success of Robert Page's pulsed radar experiment in 1934 redirected the attention of the Signal Corps, who had been focusing more on use of sound and heat to detect aircraft. Expertise in radio equipment design by the signal corps led to rapid development of an early type of VHF radar at Fort Monmouth and Camp Evans in New Jersey for use with coastal artillery .

Radar arrangement on the aircraft carrier Lexington, 1944
By 1940 when the British and US began technology exchanges, the British were surprised to learn they were not unique in their possession of practical pulse radar technology. The U.S. Navy's pulse radar system, the CXAM radar was found to be very similar in capability to their Chain Home technology. The British were much further ahead on microwave research necessary for the second generation of military radars. Although the US Navy had produced by 1940 an experimental 10–cm radar, they were stymied by the problem of insufficient transmitter power. On entry to World War II, the army and navy had working first generation radar units in front line units, and this technology was relied on throughout the war. The army's type SCR-270 radar detected the Japanese planes attacking Pearl Harbor at a range of 132 miles (212 km), although this information was not used effectively at the command level. After the war this unit was employed in the first application of radar in astronomy by bouncing radio waves off the Moon in 1946.
Although the US had developed pulsed radar systems independent of the British as had the Germans, there were serious weaknesses in their efforts - the greatest of which was the lack of integration of radar into unified air defense system. Here the British were without peer. The result of the Tizard Mission in 1940 was a major step forward for utilization of radar technology, both in the transfer of the organizational knowledge that Watson-Watt had worked out as well as the British microwave technology. In particular, the cavity magnetron was the answer the US was looking for, and it led to the creation of the MIT Radiation Lab, a major center for research employing almost 4,000 people at its peak during the Second World War.
It was in 1942 that the neologism and acronym RADAR was coined by the U.S. Navy. The acronym RADAR is still in use by the US Navy, and as a mnemonic device to describe its components, they have come up with a new acronym, ARMPIT (Antenna, Receiver, Modulator, PowerSupply, Indicator, Transmitter).

[edit] Japan

Nakajima J1N night fighter with FD-2 nose radar
Well prior to World War II, Japan had knowledgeable researchers in the technologies necessary for radar but due to lack of appreciation of radar's potential, and rivalry between army, navy and civilian research groups, Japanese technology was 3 to 5 years behind that of the US during the war. The Japanese captured a British type gun laying radar in Singapore as well as an American SCR-268 and SCR-270 when they overran the Philippines.[citation needed] In August 1942, US marines captured a Japanese Navy Type 1 model 1 radar, and though judged to be crude even by the standards of early US radars, the fact the Japanese had any radar capability came as a surprise.[citation needed]
One leader in radar technology was Hidetsugu Yagi, a researcher of international stature who was working on applications of power transmission via microwave in the early 1930s.[citation needed] Though his project was overly ambitious, the work he did was directly applicable to advanced microwave radars. The papers he delivered in the late 20s in the US on antennas and magnetron design were closely studied by US researchers.[citation needed] His work was given so little attention by Japanese military researchers that when the Japanese captured the British radar unit in Singapore, at first they were unaware that the "Yagi" antenna mentioned in captured manuals referred to a Japanese invention. Although progress was rapid after the value of radar was better appreciated, research continued to be impeded by inter-service rivalry and new units, though capable, were too late to influence the outcome of the war.[citation needed] Radar was used by the army for gun laying and aircraft detection, by the navy for detection of air and sea threats on all major capital ships, including use of centimetric units in 1944.[citation needed] Towards the end of the war, units were sufficiently miniaturized for airborne intercept (FD-2) radar on J1N1-S Gekko night fighters and airborne ship detection radar in G4M2 "Betty" bombers and Kawanishi H8K patrol planes.

[edit] Canada
Little radar research was done in Canada prior to the start of WW2. However, in 1939 the National Research Council of Canada was tasked with developing a Canadian designed radar system. After the fall of France in June 1940, radar research was given the highest possible priority, leading to the development and deployment of a series of radar systems, including the CSC type and SW1C naval radars, which were operationally deployed on RCN ships in 1941, placing Canada into the forefront of naval radar deployment.[8]

[edit] Cold War
After World War II the primary "axis" of combat shifted to lie between the United States and the Soviet Union. In order to provide early warning of an attack, both sides deployed huge radar networks of increasing sophistication at ever-more remote locations. The first such system was the Pinetree Line deployed across Canada in the 1950s, backed up with radars on ships and oil platforms off the east and west coasts. The Pinetree Line was a simple system and was vulnerable to jamming, so the more sophisticated Mid-Canada Line (MCL) was set up to supplant it. However, the MCL was not considered to be militarily very useful, and the DEW Line started construction soon after, in the high Arctic. Construction of the DEW line is still considered one of the great logistics and civil engineering projects of the 20th century. In the late 1950s, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System was added to warn of ICBM launches.